(Code 2) TASK

1. Through the development of American history, some concepts have dominated the American people's view. how many concepts are they mention ?

There are some aspects that dominated american people's view:

• Religion
• Economy
• Social
• Culture
• Politic

2. What do you know about pluralistic society ?

Pluralistic society

This is any society in which citizens can legally and publicly hold multiple competing ethical views and are allowed to choose for themselves what ethical beliefs if any they wish to hold. It is often mistaken for a society which tolerates different ethical beliefs or groups of people and holds that all are equal, which is correctly identified as moral relativism, a logically invalid position held by mush of the world today.

Pluralistic Society is a society comprised of people from numerous different cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Although some integration and acculturation is only natural, a pluralistic society is one that acknowledges and allows for the cultural diversity of its citizens.

                       

Most Americans today accept it as an axiomatic truth that we live in a free society.  I often wonder, however, how many of us realize that a free society is by definition a pluralistic society.  A pluralistic society is one in which there are many different centers of authority, influence, and opinion, competing with one another, arguing with one another, trying by various means to expand their spheres of influence, and producing a great variety, richness, and animation.  In such a society there is no single voice, government, cultural, ethical, religious, or social.  There are many voices, each speaking from its point of view and striving to maintain itself in the general competition for belief and support.  In direct contrast stands the monistic ideal of society, experienced by many millions of persons in other lands, which does have only one voice, and which works by many means toward effecting a unanimity of opinion, belief, and sentiment on all the issues of this life.  That system bears the name totalitarian, and it is by now an obvious fact that these two are engaged in a gigantic rivalry to capture the imagination of the world.

Examples: 
1. The Amish in Pennsylvania - who travel by horse and buggy, use no electricity, and run their own schools, banks, and stores.
2. Native Americans who have their own government, religion, businesses, schools, and communities. Each individual Native American tribe is divided up into separate sub-cultures enriched with their own collective histories and traditions, language, social customs, and family of origins.

(Code 2) Essay of writing

Sejarah benua Amerika

Sejarah menyebutkan bahwa Benua Amerika pertama kali ditemukan oleh Christopher Columbus. Hal yang telah menjadi pengetahuan umum semua anak manusia dibumi ini. Namun berbagai literatur dan bukti-bukti fisik berupa prasasti, manuscript dan kabar berita lainnya menyebutkan lain, Bukan Colombus lah penemu benua amerika. Kenapa?  Karena 70 tahun sebelum Columbus menjejakkan kaki di amerika, daratan yang disangkanya India, Laksamana Muslim dari China bernama Ceng Ho (Zheng He) telah mendarat di Amerika. Bahkan berabad sebelum Ceng Ho, pelaut-pelaut Muslim dari Spanyol dan Afrika Barat telah membuat kampung-kampung di Amerika dan berasimilasi secara damai dengan penduduk lokal di sana. Penemu Amerika bukanlah Columbus. Penemu Amerika adalah Umat Islam. Mereka menikah dengan penduduk lokal, orang-orang Indian, sehingga menjadi bagian dari local-genius Amerika. Ada sejumlah literatur yang berangkat dari fakta-fakta empirik bahwa umat Islam sudah hidup di Amerika beberapa abad sebelum Colombus datang. Salah satunya yang paling popular adalah essay Dr. Youssef Mroueh, dari Preparatory Commitee for International Festivals to celebrate the millennium of the Muslims arrival to the Americas, tahun 1996, yang berjudul "Precolumbian Muslims in America". Sejarah Benua Amerika Versi Muslim Dalam essaynya, Doktor Mroueh menulis, "Sejumlah fakta menunjukkan bahwa Muslimin dari Spanyol dan Afrika Barat tiba di Amerika sekurang-kurangnya lima abad sebelum Columbus. Pada pertengahan abad ke-10, pada waktu pemerintahan Khalifah Umayyah, yaitu Abdurrahman III (929 – 961M), kaum Muslimin yang berasal dari Afrika berlayar ke Barat dari pelabuhan Delbra (Palos) di Spanyol, menembus "samudra yang gelap dan berkabut". Setelah menghilang beberapa lama, mereka kembali dengan sejumlah harta dari negeri yang "tak dikenal dan aneh". Ada kaum Muslimin yang tinggal bermukim di negeri baru itu, dan mereka inilah kaum imigram Muslimin gelombang pertama di Amerika." Granada, benteng pertahanan terakhir umat Islam di Eropa jatuh pada tahun 1492. Pada pertengahan abad ke-16 terjadilah pemaksaan besar-besaran secara kejam terhadap orang-orang Yahudi dan Muslimin untuk menganut agama Katholik, yang terkenal dalam sejarah sebagai Spanish Inquisition. Pada masa itu keadaan orang-orang Yahudi dan orang-orang Islam sangat menyedihkan, karena penganiayaan dari pihak Gereja Katolik Roma yang dilaksanakan oleh inkuisisi tersebut. Ada tiga macam sikap orang-orang Yahudi dan orang-orang Islam dalam menghadapi inkusisi itu: Pertama, yang tidak mau beralih agama. Akibatnya mereka disiksa kemudian dieksekusi dengan dibakar atau dipancangkan di kayu salib. Kedua, beralih agama menjadi Katholik Roma. Mereka itu diawasi pula apakah memang berganti agama secara serius atau tidak. Kelompok orang Islam yang beralih agama itu disebut kelompok Morisko, sedangkan yang dari agama Yahudi disebut kelompok Marrano. Ketiga, melarikan diri atau hijrah menyeberang Laut Atlantik yang dahulunya dinamakan Samudra yang gelap dan berkabut. Inilah kelompok imigran gelombang kedua di negeri baru itu. Penganiayaan itu mencapai puncaknya semasa Paus Sixtus V (1585-1590). Sekurang-kurangnya ada dua dokumen yang menyangkut inkusisi ini. Yang pertama, Raja Spanyol Carlos V mengeluarkan dekrit pada tahun 1539 melarang penduduk bermigrasi ke Amerika Latin bagi keturunan Muslimin yang dihukum bakar dan dieksekusi di kayu sula itu. Yang kedua dekrit itu diratifikasi pada 1543, dan disertai perintah pengusiran Muslimin keluar dari jajahan Spanyol di seberang laut Atlantik. Ini adalah bukti historis adanya imigran Muslimin gelombang kedua sebelum tahun 1543 (dekrit kedua). Ada banyak literatur yang membuktikan adanya kehadiran Muslimin gelombang pertama ke Amerika jauh sebelum zaman Columbus. Bukti-bukti itu antara lain: Abul-Hassan Ali Ibnu Al-Hussain Al-Masudi merupakan seorang pakar sejarah dan geografi yang hidup dari tahun 871-957 M. Dalam karyanya yang berjudul "Muruj adh-dhahab wa maad aljawhar" (Hamparan Emas dan Tambang Permata), Abu Hassan menulis bahwa pada waktu pemerintahan Khalifah Abdullah Ibn Muhammad (888-912), penjelajah Muslim Khasykhasy Ibn Sa’ied Ibn Aswad dari Cordova-Spanyol, telah berlayar dari Delba (Palos) pada 889, menyeberang Samudra yang gelap dan berkabut dan mencapai sebuah negeri yang asing (al-ardh majhul) dan kembali dengan harta yang mentakjubkan. Pada peta Al-Masudi terbentang luas negeri yang disebutnya dengan al-ardh majhul. [Al-Masudi: Muruj Adh-Dhahab, Vol. 1, P. 1385] Loe Weiner, pakar sejarah dari Harvard University, dalam bukunya "Africa and the Discovery of America" (1920) menulis bahwa Columbus telah mengetahui kehadiran orang-orang Islam yang tersebar seluas Karibia, Amerika Tengah dan Utara, termasuk Canada. Mereka berdagang dan telah melakukan asimilasi perkawinan dengan orang-orang Indian dari suku Iroquois dan Algonquin. Geografer dan pembuat peta bernama Al-Syarif Al-Idrisi (1099- 1166) menulis dalam bukunya yang terkenal Nuzhat al-Musytaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaaq (Ekskursi dari yang Rindu Mengarungi Ufuq) bahwa sekelompok pelaut dari Afrika Utara berlayar mengarungi Samudra yang gelap dan berkabut dari Lisbon (Portugal) dengan maksud mendapatkan apa yang ada di balik samudra itu, betapa luasnya dan di mana batasnya. Mereka menemukan pulau yang penghuninya bercocok tanam dan telah mempergunakan bahasa Arab. Columbus dan para penjelajah Spanyol serta Portugis mampu melayari menyeberang Samudra Atlantik dalam jarak sekitar 2400 km, adalah karena bantuan informasi geografis dan navigasi dari peta yang dibuat oleh pedagang-pedagang Muslimin, termasuk informasi dari buku tulisan Abul Hassan Al-Masudi yang berjudul Akhbar az-Zaman. Tidak banyak diketahui orang, bahwa Columbus dibantu oleh dua orang nakhoda Muslim pada waktu ekspedisi pertamanya menyeberang transatlantik. Kedua kapten Muslim itu adalah dua bersaudara Martin Alonso Pinzon yang menakodai kapal Pinta, dan Vicente Yanez Pinzon yang menakodai kapal Nina. Keduanya adalah hartawan yang mahir dalam seluk-beluk perkapalan, membantu Columbus dalam organisasi ekspedisi itu, dan mempersiapkan perlengkapan kapal bendera Santa Maria. Bersaudara Pinzon ini masih memiliki ikatan kekeluargaan dengan Abuzayan Muhammad III (1362-66), Sultan Maroko dari dinasti Marinid (1196-1465). (Thacher, John Boyd: Christopher Columbus, New York 1950). Para antropologis telah menemukan prasasti dalam bahasa Arab di lembah Mississipi dan Arizona. Dari prasasti itu diperoleh keterangan bahwa imigran itu membawa juga gajah dari Afrika. (Winters, Clyde Ahmad: Islam in Early North and South America, Al-Ittihad, July 1977, p.60) Columbus menulis bahwa pada hari Senin, 21 Oktober 1492, sementara ia berlayar dekat Gibara pada bagian tenggara pantai Cuba, Columbus menyaksikan masjid di atas puncak bukit yang indah. Reruntuhan beberapa masjid dan menaranya serta tulisan ayat Al Quran telah didapatkan di berbagai tempat seperti Cuba, Mexico, Texas, dan Nevada. (Thacher, John Boyd: Christopher Columbus, New York 1950) Dr. Barry Fell dari Harvard University menulis bahwa fakta-fakta ilmiah telah menunjukkan bahwa berabad-abad sebelum Columbus, telah bermukim kaum Muslimin di Benua Baru dari Afrika Utara dan Barat. Dr. Fell mendapatkan adanya sekolah-sekolah Islam di Valley of Fire, Allan Springs, Logomarsino, Keyhole, Canyon, Washoe, dan Hickison Summit Pass (Nevada), Mesa Verde (Colorado), Mimbres Valley (New Mexico) dan Tipper Canoe (Indiana) dalam tahun-tahun 700-800. (FellL, Barry: Saga America, New York, 1980] dan GYR,DONALD: Exploring Rock Art, Santa Barbara, 1989). Jejak Peninggalan Muslim Amerika Di sekujur benua Amerika kita akan bisa mendapatkan jejak-jejak umat Islam gelombang pertama dan kedua, jauh sebelum kedatangan Columbus. Lihat peta Amerika hari ini buatan Rand McNally dan cermati nama-nama tempat yang ada di Amerika. Di tengah kota Los Angeles terdapat nama kawasan Alhambra, juga nama-nama teluk El Morro dan Alamitos, serta nama-nama tempat seperti Andalusia, Attilla, Alla, Aladdin, Albany, Alcazar, Alameda, Alomar, Almansor, Almar, Alva, Amber, Azure, dan La Habra. Di bagian tengah Amerika, dari selatan hingga Illinois terdapat nama-nama kota Albany, Andalusia, Attalla, Lebanon, dan Tullahoma. Di negara bagian Washington misalnya, terdapat kota Salem. Lalu di Karibia (ini jelas kata Arab) dan Amerika Tengah misalnya ada nama Jamaika, Pulau Cuba (berasal dari kata Quba?) dengan ibukotanya La Habana (Havana), serta pulau-pulau Grenada, Barbados, Bahama, dan Nassau. Di Amerika Selatan terdapat nama kota-kota Cordoba (di Argentina), Alcantara (di Brazil), Bahia (di Brazil dan Argentina). Nama-nama pegunungan Appalachian (Apala-che) di pantai timur dan pegunungan Absarooka di pantai barat. Kota besar di Ohio pada muara sungai Wabash yang panjang dan meliuk-liuk bernama Toledo, satu nama universitas Islam ketika Islam masih berjaya di Andalusia, Spanyol. Menurut Dr. Youssef Mroueh, sekarang saja terdapat tidak kurang dari 565 nama tempat di Amerika Utara, baik di negara bagian, kota, sungai, gunung, danau, dan desa yang diambil dari nama Islam ataupun nama dengan akar kata bahasa Arab. Sebanyak 484 di Amerika Serikat dan 81 di Canada. Ini merupakan bukti yang tak terbantahkan bahwa Islam telah ada di sana sebelum Columbus mendarat. Dr. A. Zahoor bahkan menegaskan bahwa nama negara bagian seperti Alabama, sebenarnya berasal dari kata Allah-bamya, dan juga nama negara Arkansas berasal dari kata Arkan-Sah, serta Tennesse dari kata Tanasuh. Dr. Mroueh juga menuliskan beberapa nama yang dicatatnya malah merupakan nama kota suci kita seperti Mecca di Indiana, Medina di Idaho, Medina di New York, Medina dan Hazen di North Dakota, Medina di Ohio, Medina di Tennessee, Medina di Texas yang paling besar dengan penduduk 26,000, Medina di Ontario Canada, kota Mahomet di Illinois, Mona di Utah, dan Arva di Ontario Canada. Ketika Columbus mendarat di kepulauan Bahama pada 12 Oktober 1492, pulau itu sudah dinamai Guanahani oleh penduduknya. Kata ini berasal dari bahasa Mandika yang merupakan turunan dari bahasa Arab. Dilaporkan oleh Columbus bahwa penduduk asli di sini bersahabat dan suka menolong. Guana, yang hingga hari ini masih banyak dipakai sebagai nama di kawasan Amerika Tengah, Selatan dan Utara, berasal dari kata Ikhwana yang berarti ’saudara’ dalam bahasa Arab. Guanahani berarti tempat keluarga Hani bersaudara. Namun Columbus dengan seenaknya menamakan tempat ini sebagai San Salvador dan merampas kepemilikan pulau itu atas nama kerajaan Spanyol. Columbus dalam catatannya menuliskan bahwa pada 21 Oktober 1492 dia melihat rerunruthan masjid dan menaranya lengkap dengan tulisan ayat-ayat Al Qur’an telah ditemukan selain di Cuba, juga di Mexico, Texas, dan Nevada. Perlayaran melintasi Lautan Atlantik dari Maroko dicatat juga oleh penjelajah laut Shaikh Zayn-eddin Ali bin Fadhel Al-Mazandarani. Kapalnya berangkat dari Tarfay di Maroko pada zaman Sultan Abu-Yacoub Sidi Youssef (1286 – 1307), penguasa keenam dalam dinasti Marinid. Kapalnya mendarat di pulau Green di Laut Karibia pada tahun 1291. Menurut Dr. Mroeh, catatan perjalanan ini banyak dijadikan referensi oleh ilmuwan Islam. Sultan-sultan dari kerajaan Mali di Afrika barat yang beribukota di Timbuktu, ternyata juga melakukan perjalanan sendiri hingga ke benua Amerika. Sejarawan Chihab Addin Abul-Abbas Ahmad bin Fadhl Al Umari (1300 – 1384) mencatat berbagai ekpedisi ini dengan cermat. Timbuktu yang kini dilupakan orang, dahulunya merupakan pusat peradaban, perpustakaan dan keilmuan yang maju di Afrika. Ekpedisi perjalanan darat dan laut banyak dilakukan orang menuju Timbuktu atau berawal dari Timbuktu. Sultan yang tercatat melanglang buana hingga ke benua baru saat itu adalah Sultan Abu Bakari I (1285 – 1312), saudara dari Sultan Mansa Kankan Musa (1312 – 1337), yang telah melakukan dua kali ekspedisi melintas Lautan Atlantik hingga ke Amerika dan bahkan menyusuri sungai Mississippi. Sultan Abu Bakari I melakukan eksplorasi di Amerika tengah dan utara dengan menyusuri sungai Mississippi antara tahun 1309-1312. Para eksplorer ini berbahasa Arab. Dua abad kemudian, penemuan benua Amerika diabadikan dalam peta berwarna Piri Re’isi yang dibuat tahun 1513, dan dipersembahkan kepada raja Ottoman Sultan Selim I (1517). Peta ini menunjukkan belahan bumi bagian barat, Amerika selatan dan bahkan benua Antartika, dengan penggambaran pesisiran Brasil secara akurat. Indian dan Umat Islam Beberapa nama-nama suku Indian dan kepala sukunya juga berasal dari akar kata bahasa Arab, seperti: Anasazi, Apache, Arawak, Cherokee (Shar-kee), Arikana, Chavin Cree, Makkah, Hohokam, Hupa, Hopi, Mahigan, Mohawk, Nazca, Zulu, dan Zuni. Kepala suku Indian Cherokee yang terkenal, Sequoyah yang nama aslinya Sikwoya, merupakan ketua suku yang sangat terkenal karena beliau menciptakan sillabel huruf-huruf (Cherokee Syllabary) bagi orang Indian pada tahun 1821. Namanya diabadikan sebagai nama pohon Redwood yang tertinggi di California, sekarang dapat disaksikan di taman hutan lindung di utara San Francisco. Berlainan dengan gambaran stereotip tentang suku Indian yang selalu mengenakan bulu-bulu burung warna-warni di kepalanya, seperti yang banyak digambarkan para seniman Barat selama ini, Sequoyah selalu mengenakan sorban. Dia tidak sendirian, masih banyak ketua suku Indian yang mengenakan tutup kepala gaya orang Islam. Mereka adalah Chippewa, Creek, Iowa, Kansas, Miami, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, Seminole, Shawnee, Sioux, Winnebago, dan Yuchi. Bahkan sebagian dari mereka mengenakan penutup kepala yang khas Arab seperti ditunjukkan pada foto-foto tahun 1835 dan 1870 Orang-orang Indian Amerika juga memegang nilai ketuhanan dengan mempercayai adanya Tuhan yang menguasai seluruh alam semesta ini, dan Tuhan tersebut tidak teraba oleh panca indera. Mereka juga meyakini bahwa tugas utama manusia diciptakan oleh Tuhan adalah untuk memuja dan menyembahnya. Seperti penuturan seorang kepala suku Ohiyesa: "In the life of the Indian, there was only inevitable duty -the duty of prayer- the daily recognition of the Unseen and the Eternal". Di dalam Al Qur’an, kita diberitahukan bahwa tujuan penciptaan manusia dan jin adalah semata-mata demi untuk beribadah kepada Allah SWT. Ahli sejarah seni Jerman, Alexander Von Wuthenau, dalam buku klasiknya "Unexpected Faces in Ancient America" (1975); serta Ivan Van Sertima dengan buku "They Came Before Columbus" (1976) dan juga mengedit buku "African Presence In Early America" di mana intelektual Perancis abad ke-19 Brasseur de Bourboug di situ mengungkapkan keberadaan orang-orang Islam di Amerika tengah, yang juga didukung essei dari P.V. Ramos dalam buku yang sama tentang keberadaan ‘Mohemmedans’ di Karibia (Carib) yang dijumpai Columbus. Beberapa literature lainnya yang bisa ditelusuri tentang hal yang sama antara lain dari ahli arkeologi dan linguis Howard Barraclough (Barry) Fell berjudul "Saga America" (1980); Colin Taylor (editor) "The Native Americans" (1991); dan orientalis Inggris De Lacy O’Leary yang menulis "Arabic Thought and It’s Place In Western History" (1992). Salah satu buku yang telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia karya Gavin Menzies, seorang bekas pelaut yang menerbitkan hasil penelusurannya, menemukan adanya peta empat buah pulau di Karibia yang dibuat pada tahun 1424 dan ditandatangani oleh Zuane Pissigano, kartografer dari Venesia. Peta ini berarti dibuat 68 tahun sebelum Columbus mendarat di Amerika. Dua pulau pada peta ini kemudian diidentifikasi sebagai Puerto Rico dan Guadalupe. Menzies juga mengemukakan bahwa Laksamana Zheng He (Ceng Ho), seorang Lkasamana Cina Muslim, telah mendarat di Amerika pada tahun 1421, 71 tahun lebih awal ketimbang Columbus. Lima abad sebelumnya, Khaskhas Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad pun telah menjejakkan kaki di Amerika. Jelas, penemu Amerika sama seklai bukan Colombus, tetapi para pionir pelayaran dunia, yakni pelaut-pelaut Islam yang ulung.

source : http://www.poztmo.com/2012/02/sejarah-benua-amerika.html

my opinion:

I think the first who discovered America is not Colombus. It is because, there are so many fact that support the first discoverer of America is from a moslem people. But unfortunately the world know that Colombus is the first person who discovered America. Maybe if the moslem claimed that the first one who discovered America with those facts, the world would accept that the first discovered America is moslem.

Social norms make marriage unnecessary in modern society

  Marriage isn’t necessary anymore.

     For much of recorded history, marriage has been an agreement between a man and a woman as a means of social survival. In order to acceptably produce children and obtain status, a man would marry a woman.

     The woman would in turn marry a man in order to survive both socially and financially. Since women rarely worked, the men were expected to provide money for basic needs. For the most part, this is not the case for people anymore.

     A couple generations ago, women were stay-at-home mothers who welcomed back their husbands from long, hard days of work.

     As society has progressed, women have been given the opportunity to make a name for themselves, both in the workplace and society in general.

     This eliminates the societal need and desire for getting married. Women can earn their own money and hire others to take care of their children during their workday.

     Now it appears to be that marriage has become more of a sacred and emotional agreement. People are marrying for the sake of having a partner to be emotional with – so no one feels lonely.

     However, in 2010, Time Magazinewrote an article disputing that notion about marriage, stating that “what we found is that marriage, whatever its social, spiritual or symbolic appeal, is in purely practical terms just not as necessary as it used to be.”

     Sexual relationships, success in the workforce and children can all be had outside of marriage while still being acceptable by the majority of society.

     In regards to parenting, one out of four children is born into a single-parent family. America has the highest rate of single-parent births than any other developed country in the world.

     The percentage rises every year. Out of these families, most of the parents are employed in stable jobs and provide for their children.

     Being a single parent, while difficult, is not as impossible as it used to be. Single fathers and mothers receive discounts, tax write-offs and other benefits to assist them in raising children.

     Though being single can have many benefits, marriage is not bad by any means. If two people want to get married and can make it work, they should get married. Marriage can be a wonderful and rewarding commitment. 

     About seven percent of undergraduate college students are married. The number rises as the age goes up. The older the student, the more likely they are to be married. Many of those couples are happy and remain together.

     However, the fact is that marriage is just not as necessary in modern society as it was in past times. Women do not need to rely on men in order to survive. Women can get jobs.

     Both genders can work as partners rather than playing the provider and dependent roles. Both men and women have a choice now.

http://www.uccsscribe.com/opinion/social-norms-make-marriage-unnecessary-in-modern-society-1.2781801

Becaue of the gender equality in this era, the women could work and fulfill their needs, they dont have to depended to the man anymore. in this case the woman thought they dont have to married. Moreover the promiscuity of the young generation is acceptable in the societies, so the young generation also thought when they mature.

Makin Lunturnya Norma Kesusilaan di Masyarakat

Sepertinya kita semua sepakat jika merasa prihatin dengan kondisi bangsa Indonesia kini. Semakin hari bukannya bergerak ke arah perbaikan, namun nyatanya justru malah mengalami kemunduran. Salah satunya adalah mulain memburamnya norma kesusilaan secara perlahan.

Ada banyak kasus perkosaan, pelecehan, hilangnya budaya malu, korupsi, dan kejahatan yang merajalela hingga masalah moral lainnya. Norma kesusilaan adalah salah satu norma yang berlaku di masyarakat yang menjadi benteng, sekaligus pengingat setiap individu untuk tidak terjerumus ke dalam perbuatan tercela itu.

Secara fitrah, manusia memang memiliki kecenderungan untuk melakukan berbagai kesalahan. Baik kesalahan kecil, maupun besar. Sehingga dibutuhkan aturan yang bisa meminimalisasi kemungkinan kesalahan itu berulang. Aturan itu memang diperlukan, karena manusia dalam kesehariannya selalu bersinggungan dan berinteraksi dengan orang lain.

Bisa dibayangkan bagaimana jadinya jika dalam berinteraksi tidak ada aturan yang mengaturnya. Tentu akan membuat dunia menjadi kacau balau. Hal ini juga karena masing-masing individu memiliki kepentingan yang bisa jadi berseberangan dengan kepentingan orang lain.

Rasanya hidup akan terasa sangat tidak nyaman, jauh dari rasa tentram dan akan ada banyak kekacauan. Norma adalah salah satu aturan yang dirasakan cukup efektif untuk bisa mengatur masyarakat. Sanksi yang diberikan cukup mampu membuat jera para pelaku pelanggarnya.

http://www.anneahira.com/norma-kesusilaan.htm

i think we should have moral in our heart so we can raises the norms of decency to make this country better than now. The government should give the education of norms to the public. Sadly the government do a humiliating action, that is corruption. This case makes moral young generation low. The environment is also an important factor in forming someone’s moral.

(CODE III) SOFTSKILL TASK

1. what are the factors of the establishment of the different tpes of societies ?

the factors of the establishment of the different tpes of societies:

1. wealthy

2. education

3. environment

• wealthy

by the wealth the people can fulfill their material needs, so they become different people who can't fullfill their material needs. 

• education

by the education that people can get, the people can think smarter that the other who has lower education.

• environment

environment is the most affect factor for establishment person. if the environment is bad the people will have a bad personal. if the environment is good the people will become a nice person.

2. what is/are types of Indonesian societies according to you ?

the types Indonesian societies

• upper class societies

this class including the people who has good wealth and wealth educated. 

• middle class societies

in this class the people is relative. they can fullfill their needs, eventhough the wealth is not so high.

• lower class societies

the people in this class classified as a poor people. they are difficult to fullfill their needs and usually the education is not so high.

3. Give your own comprehension regarding norms in societies ?

norms

norms is the rule/rules that bind people/groups in community, controling behavior appropiate and acceptable.

norms serves to bring order and discipline in the life of society or nation.

various kinds of norms based on the strength :

• how (usage) 
• habit (folkways)
• code of conduct (mores)
• customs (custom)

various kind of norms by the sanctions :

• religion   > the sanctions is in the other life
• decency > the sanctions is in society or group
• modesty > the sanctions is in society or group
• legal       > the sanctions usually as in the form of imprisonment or a fine

so, the norms that appears in societies are decency, modesty and legal. mostly the people will excommunicate a person who breaks those norms.

Theories of Translation

John Dryden

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language:

When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: ’tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.^[8]

Cicero

Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: “When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."

This general formulation of the central concept of translation — equivalence — is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo)^.

Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.

Samuel Johnson

In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages^[12] (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages^[13] (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard.^[9] The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.

Martin Luther

When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages.

Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely," "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance") or the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical").

The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.

Johann Gottfried Herder

If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.

Ignacy Krasicki

The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.

Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński.

The translator’s special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki:

“

[T]ranslation . . . is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.

Theory of Translation by Eugene Nida

Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and linguistics.
His Ph.D. dissertation, A Synopsis of English Syntax, was the first full-scale analysis of a major language according to the "immediate-constituent" theory. His most notable contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalence, also known as Functional Equivalence. For more information, see "Dynamic and formal equivalence." Nida also developed the "componential-analysis" technique, which split words into their components to help determine equivalence in translation (e.g. "bachelor" = male + unmarried). This is, perhaps, not the best example of the technique, though it is the most well-known.
Nida's dynamic-equivalence theory is often held in opposition to the views of philologists who maintain that an understanding of the source text (ST) can be achieved by assessing the inter-animation of words on the page, and that meaning is self-contained within the text (i.e. much more focused on achieving semantic equivalence).
This theory, along with other theories of correspondence in translating, are elaborated in his essay Principles of Correspondence, where Nida begins by asserting that given that “no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence, there can be no fully exact translations.” While the impact of a translation may be close to the original, there can be no identity in detail.
Nida then sets forth the differences in translation, as he would account for it, within three basic factors: (1) The nature of the message: in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority. (2) The purpose of the author and of the translator: to give information on both form and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she may understand the full implications of the message; for imperative purposes that aim at not just understanding the translation but also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the translation. (3) The type of audience: prospective audiences differ both in decoding ability and in potential interest.
Nida brings in the reminder that while there are no such things as “identical equivalents” in translating, what one must in translating seek to do is find the “closest natural equivalent”. Here he identifies two basic orientations in translating based on two different types of equivalence: Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E).
F-E focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. Such translations then would be concerned with such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept. Such a formal orientation that typifies this type of structural equivalence is called a “gloss translation” in which the translator aims at reproducing as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original.
The principles governing an F-E translation would then be: reproduction of grammatical units; consistency in word usage; and meanings in terms of the source context.
D-E on the other hand aims at complete “naturalness” of expression. A D-E translation is directed primarily towards equivalence of response rather than equivalence of form. The relationship between the target language receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original (source language) receptors and the message.
The principles governing a D-E translation then would be: conformance of a translation to the receptor language and culture as a whole; and the translation must be in accordance with the context of the message which involves the stylistic selection and arrangement of message constituents.
Nida and Venuti have proved that translation studies is a much more complex discipline than may first appear, with the translator having to look beyond the text itself to deconstruct on an intra-textual level and decode on a referential level—assessing culture-specific items, idiom and figurative language to achieve an understanding of the source text and embark upon creating a translation which not only transfers what words mean in a given context, but also recreates the impact of the original text within the limits of the translator's own language system (linked to this topic: George Steiner, the Hermeneutic Motion, pragmatics, field, tenor, mode and the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary). For example, a statement that Jesus "met" someone must be carefully translated into a language which distinguishes between "met for the first time", "met habitually" and simple "met".
Nida was once criticised for a controversial change in the Revised Standard Version Bible translation regarding the removal of the word "virgin" from Isaiah 7:14. However, as Peter Thuesen's book In Discordance with the Scriptures points out, Nida was not actually a committee member for that project.